Reytor González, Claudia
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Reytor González, Claudia
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Ambato

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Single vs. Dual Agonist Pharmacotherapy for Managing Insufficient Weight Loss and Weight Regain Following Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery: A Comparative Review

2026 , Reytor González, Claudia , Martín Campuzano-Donoso , Gerardo Sarno , Martha Montalvan , Raquel Horowitz , Gianluca Rossetti , Vincenzo Pilone , Luigi Barrea , Giovanna Muscogiuri , Luigi Schiavo , Simancas Racines, Daniel

Weight management after metabolic and bariatric surgery remains a persistent clinical challenge, particularly when patients experience insufficient weight loss or progressive weight regain following the postoperative nadir. In recent years, pharmacological therapies targeting gut-derived hormones have reshaped the therapeutic approach, offering nonsurgical strategies that directly influence appetite regulation, satiety, and energy balance. Single agonists acting on the glucagon-like peptide one receptor have demonstrated meaningful reductions in body weight among postoperative patients, while dual agonists that target both the glucagon-like peptide one receptor and the glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor have shown even greater weight reduction in early studies, suggesting enhanced therapeutic potential. These benefits, however, must be interpreted within the unique anatomical, nutritional, and behavioral context of individuals who have undergone metabolic and bariatric procedures, as they are inherently at higher risk for micronutrient deficiencies, gastrointestinal intolerance, and maladaptive eating patterns. Successful treatment requires a balanced integration of pharmacotherapy, individualized nutritional guidance, psychological support, and a patient-centered model of long-term care. Although emerging evidence is promising, dedicated clinical trials are still needed to directly compare the efficacy, safety, and sustainability of single versus dual agonist therapies in postoperative populations. Furthermore, culturally sensitive dietary strategies and shared decision-making processes are essential to enhance adherence, optimize long-term outcomes, and ensure equitable access to treatment. Ultimately, these therapies represent a significant advance in addressing postoperative weight challenges, but their full potential will rely on comprehensive, multidisciplinary frameworks that support both biological and behavioral aspects of chronic weight management.

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The Oral–Gut–Immune–Nutrition Axis in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications

2026 , Reytor González, Claudia , Náthaly Mercedes Román-Galeano , Lenin Saul Aules-Curicama , Camila Doménica Cevallos-Villacis , Erik González , Dolores Jima Gavilanes , Raquel Horowitz , Simancas Racines, Daniel

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease that arises from complex interactions among genetic susceptibility, environmental factors, and immune dysregulation. Growing evidence indicates that microorganisms residing in the oral cavity and gastrointestinal tract, together with dietary factors, play a central role in shaping inflammatory and autoimmune responses in rheumatoid arthritis, forming an interconnected microbiome–immune–nutrition axis. Alterations in the composition and function of oral and intestinal microbial communities are associated with disruption of mucosal barrier integrity, activation of innate and adaptive immune pathways, increased differentiation of proinflammatory T lymphocyte subsets, and loss of immune tolerance that promotes autoantibody production. In addition, microbially derived metabolites, particularly short-chain fatty acids, provide a mechanistic link between microbial ecology, immune regulation, and bone metabolism. Diet represents a key upstream modulator of this axis. Dietary patterns rich in anti-inflammatory nutrients support microbial diversity and immunoregulatory metabolite production, whereas diets high in processed foods and saturated fats favor proinflammatory microbial profiles. Accumulating clinical evidence suggests that nutritional strategies and microbiome-targeted dietary interventions may reduce systemic inflammation and disease-related comorbidities when used alongside standard pharmacological treatments. Taken together, the microbiome–immune–nutrition axis represents a modifiable and clinically meaningful target in rheumatoid arthritis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research and well-designed clinical trials to translate these insights into personalized approaches for disease management. The aim of this review is to integrate current mechanistic and clinical evidence on the interactions between the microbiome, immune system, and nutrition in rheumatoid arthritis, with a focus on their pathogenic relevance, therapeutic potential, and implications for personalized, diet-based interventions.

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